Acton James M. Is it a Nuke? Pre-Launch Ambiguity and Inadvertent Escalation

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. — Washington D.C., April 2020. — 86 p.About the Author.Abbreviations.Why Worry About Pre-Launch Warhead Ambiguity?
The Evolution of Ambiguous Weapons.
Why Warhead Ambiguity Can Cause Mischaracterization Pre-Launch.
Why Warhead Ambiguity Could Lead to Escalation.
Conclusions and Recommendations.
Appendix: France, India, Pakistan, and North Korea.
Notes.
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.